<b>Early life</b>
Ma Chao was from Fufeng Prefecture's Maoling County; he was born of mixed blood — half Han Chinese and half Qiang. In the latter years of Emperor Ling's reign, his father, Ma Teng together with Han Sui, Bian Zhang and others built an army in Liangzhou. Later on, Ma Teng and Han Sui led their troops to Chang'an. The Han imperial court gave a title of "General who Controls the West" (????) to Han Sui and ordered him to return to Jincheng while giving the title of "General who Conquers the West" (????) to Ma Teng and stationed him at Mei County (in the province of Shaanxi). Later, Ma Teng attacked Chang'an but was defeated and retreated to Liangzhou. Meanwhile, Zhong Yao, who protected the pass of Guanzhong, wrote a letter to Ma Teng and Han Sui informing them of an interest in forming an alliance. Subsequently, Ma Teng and Han Sui had some disagreements and Ma Teng asked to return to the vicinity of the capital. So the Han imperial court summoned Ma Teng back and made him a Commandant of the Palace Guards.[1]

Cao Cao recommended Ma Teng’s firstborn son, Ma Chao, to serve in office, but Ma Chao declined. Later on, however, Ma Chao became Sili Xiaowei Dujun Congshi (roughly meaning a subordinate military officer of Sili Xiaowei),[2] and accompanied Zhong Yao to Pingyang and suppress Guo Yuan and Gao Gan.[3] In the ensuing battle, Ma Chao was hit by an arrow on the foot, but he took a pouch, wrapped his foot in it, and continued fighting and beheaded Guo Yuan.[4] The court made him Inspector of the Xu province, and then transferred him to be an Imperial Consultant. When Ma Teng went into the Capital, Ma Chao was made Lieutenant-General, and ordered to take over Ma Teng’s command. He also received the title of Marquis of Duting. The court also made Ma Chao’s younger brother Ma Xiu Chief Commandant of the Charioteers, and Ma Xiu’s younger brother Ma Tie Colonel of the Cavalry. All their families were sent to Ye city, but Ma Chao stayed behind.[5]


<b>Uprising against Cao Cao</b>
After he took control of Ma Teng's forces, Ma Chao reconciled with Han Sui. He also contacted Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi and others, and started the Battle of Tong Pass. Cao Cao personally negotiated with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao thought highly about his own ability and had planned to capture Cao Cao alive. His charges were only held back by Cao Cao’s personal bodyguard, Xu Chu. After executing Ma Chao's family in Ye for his rebellion, Cao Cao used Jia Xu's ploy to drive Han Sui and Ma Chao apart and instigated them to be suspicious of each other. Thus, their forces were annihilated and Ma Chao escaped to the west and lived among the tribes. Cao Cao pursued him to Anding (??) when he heard about unrest in the north and ordered his troops to return. Yang Fu warned Cao Cao, "Ma Chao has the courage of Ying Bu and Han Xin, and he has the support of the Qiangs and the other tribes. If you order the army to retreat now and we don't have enough forces here, we forfeit the prefectures of Longxi."[6]

Sure enough, Ma Chao attacked the prefectures of Longxi with the forces of the western tribes and the prefectures took their lead from him, except for the city of Jicheng (??).[7] When he conquered Jicheng, Ma Chao killed the Inspector of Liangzhou, Wei Kang, occupied the city and controlled Wei Kang’s forces. He called himself the General Who Conquers the West and took over the governance of Bingzhou and the military matters of Liangzhou. The deputies who served under Wei Kang: Yang Fu, Jiang Xu, Liang Kuan, Zhao Qu and others plotted against Ma Chao. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu revolted in Licheng and Ma Chao left Jicheng to quell the uprising, but was not successful. Meanwhile, Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu closed the gates to Jicheng and Ma Chao could not return to the city. He had little choice but to seek refuge with Zhang Lu in Hanzhong.


<b>Service under Zhang Lu</b>
Ma Chao was unhappy with Zhang Lu because he felt Zhang Lu was not capable enough nor ambitious enough to accomplish great tasks.[8] He would ask Zhang Lu for troops to attack Liangzhou from time to time, but was never triumphant.

Zhang Lu once thought of marrying his daughter to Ma Chao, but Wang Shang, one of Zhang Lu's officers, dissuaded him, saying "Ma Chao is full of courage but not humanity; he knows no allegiance. He can not be trusted in a relationship that calls for an interdependency."[9] (referring to his uprising that doomed his clan). Ma Chao was deeply regretful for causing the death of his family, as on one New Year's Day, he laments with younger cousin Ma Dai: "A family of hundreds, sharing the same fate in one day. Now are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?"

Zhang Lu grew to distrust Ma Chao more and more, and sent Yang Bo to monitor him. Ma Chao then left Zhang Lu to live with the Di people.


<b>Service under Liu Bei</b>
Meanwhile, Liu Bei attacked Liu Zhang in Chengdu and sent Li Kui to convince Ma Chao to join him.[10] Ma Chao responded by killing Yang Bo and leading his men to defect to Liu Bei. When Liu Bei heard that Ma Chao was coming, he said delightedly, "I am going to get Yizhou!"[11] He sent an envoy to greet Ma Chao. Ma Chao led his men to the north side of Chengdu, capital city of Liu Zhang. There was great fear within the city. Within ten days, Liu Zhang surrendered.[12] Ma Chao was appointed as "General Who Pacifies the West" (????) and put in charge of the areas of Linju (??) as befitting a Marquis of Duting, which was the title awarded by the Han court to Ma Chao. When Liu Bei became Prince of Hanzhong, he gave Ma Chao the title of "General of the Left" (???). In 221, Ma Chao was appointed as "General of the Agile Cavalry" (????) and governor of the Province of Liang. He also received a noble title of Marquis of Lixiang.[13]

Liu Bei wrote to Ma Chao, "I am incapable but I needed to preserve the Han dynasty. Cao Cao and his son ruined the country would be remembered by all for their sins. I am disconsolate by their wrongdoings. Our people loathed them and hope to regain the Han realm such that the Di, Qiang and Xunyu and other tribes on all corners of China will be willing to join us. You are in good esteem of the northerners and your valor is well-known there. I have an important task for you: I hope you use your great influence to govern them and be concerned about the sufferings of the people. You must show the benefits of the Han government. Be fair in your task to reward the good and punish the wrongdoers. Add to the fortunes of the Han culture and not let our people down."[14]

Ma Chao passed away at the age of 47 in second year of Zhangwu as a result of illness. Before he died, he wrote to Liu Bei, "Most of my extended family of two hundred odd were killed by Cao Cao. Only my younger cousin Ma Dai is left. Let him continue what is left of our family. I entrust him to you. That is all I have to say."[15]

Liu Bei gave Ma Chao the posthumous title of Marquis of Wei and his son, Ma Cheng, inherited his nobility. Ma Chao's daughter married Prince of Anping, Liu Li.[16]