<b>Early life</b>
Born in Zhuo Commandery (?, present day Zhuozhou, Hebei), Liu Bei was a descendant of Liu Sheng, a son of Emperor Jing. His grandfather Liu Xiong (??) and father Liu Hong (??) were both employed as local clerks.

Liu Bei grew up poor, having lost his father when he was still a child. To support themselves, he and his mother sold shoes and straw-woven mats. At age fourteen, Liu Bei, sponsored by a more well-off relative who saw his potentials, went to study under Lu Zhi (a prominent scholar and, at the time, former Administrator of Jiujiang). There he met and befriended Gongsun Zan.

The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying but rather fond of hunting, music, and nice clothings. Few of words, calm in demeanor, and kind to his friends, Liu Bei was well-liked by his contemporaries. He was said to have long arms and large earlobes.


<b>Yellow Turban Rebellion</b>
In 184, at the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Liu Bei called to raise a volunteer army. For that, he got financial contributions from two wealthy horse merchants and he gained a group of loyal followers, most famous amongst whom were Guan Yu and Zhang Fei.

Liu Bei led his army to join with the provincial army. Together they scored several victories against the rebels. As reward, he was appointed Prefect of Anxi (???), Zhongshan commandery (??)—a position he soon left by refusing to bend to a corrupted inspector.

He then traveled south with his followers to join another volunteer army to suppress the Yellow Turbans, who glared up again in Xu Province (??, northern Jiangsu). For that achievement, he was appointed Prefect and Captain of Gaotang (Gaotang ling ???, Gaotang wei ???).


<b>Succeeding Tao Qian</b>
In 192, after the coalition against Dong Zhuo broke up, the country sank into war and chaos. Overran by rebels, Liu Bei moved north to seek safety with Gongsun Zan, who at the time was fighting with Yuan Shao for control of Ji Province (Hebei) and Qing Province (Shandong). Gongsun Zan sent him to help Tian Kai (to fight Yuan Shao) in Shandong. For this, he was later made Prefect of Pingyuan County (??), then Chancellor of Pingyuan, located on the border of Yuan Shao.

In 194, Cao Cao launched a campaign against Tao Qian in Xu Province. At the time, there were two opposing alliances—Yuan Shu and Gongsun Zan on one side, Yuan Shao and Cao Cao the other. Because Tao Qian was being hard pressed, he appealed to Tian Kai for help. Tian Kai and Liu Bei moved to save him.

However, Zhang Miao rebelled and called in Lü Bu to take over Cao Cao's base (Yan Province—??, present day western Shandong). Cao Cao had to withdraw. Tao Qian asked Liu Bei to station in nearby Xiaopei (??, present day Pei County, Jiangsu) and gave him 4000 more troops, in addition to 1000 or so troops and some Wuhuan cavalry already under his command.

Later that year, Tao Qian died. On his deathbed, he had resolved to have Liu Bei taking over his domain and entrusted Mi Zhu to carry out the transfer of power. Hesitant initially, Liu Bei refused but eventually accepted on advices from Kong Rong and Chen Deng.


<b>Conflicts with Lü Bu</b>
In 195, Lü Bu was eventually defeated by Cao Cao and sought refuge under Liu Bei. In the next, Yuan Shu invaded Xu Province. Liu Bei led his army to Xuyi and Huaiyin (??, in Guangling, south of Xu Province) to counter. They faced each other for a month without any decisive result.

Zhang Fei, left by Liu Bei to hold Xiapi (capital of Xu Province at the time), quarreled and killed Cao Bao (??), Chancellor of Xiapi from the time of Tao Qian, causing unrest in the city. Lü Bu took this opportunity and made a surprise attack to capture Xiapi, with it the families of Liu Bei and his officers.

Liu Bei returned on receiving the news, but his army had disintegrated by the time he reached Xiapi. Gathering whatever he could, he then moved to Guangling but was defeated by Yuan Shu. Liu Bei then treated to Haixi (??), Donghai Commandery (??). Faced with enemies on both sides and desperate little supplies (Mi Zhu had to provide the army out of his personal wealth), Liu Bei requested a truce with Lü Bu, who accepted and returned Liu Bei's family as an act of good faith, because he was becoming apprehensive of Yuan Shu. Lü Bu, fearing isolation, obstructed further attempt by Yuan Shu to eliminate Liu Bei. Liu Bei moved his camp to Xiaopei. There he rebuilt his strength, gathering over ten thousand men. Lü Bu became concerned and attacked Xiaopei. Liu Bei fled to Xuchang, where Cao Cao received him well, gave him some troops, provisions, and official appointment of Governor of Yu Province (???, Yuzhou mu), stationing in Pei to keep an eye on Lü Bu.

In 198, Lü Bu renewed his alliance with Yuan Shu to stem Cao Cao's growing influence and sent Gao Shun and Zhang Liao to attack Liu Bei. Cao Cao sent Xiahou Dun to support Liu Bei but he was defeated by Gao Shun. Liu Bei had to flee to Cao Cao again. Cao Cao himself led an army against Lü Bu, and eventually captured and executed the latter at Xiapi.


<b>Role in the Cao-Yuan conflict</b>
By 199, Cao Cao had Emperor Xian in his control and was issuing orders under pretense of imperial decrees. Liu Bei joined a conspiracy headed by Dong Cheng, a cousin of the emperor, and some other men to remove Cao Cao. Moreover, he was anxious to leave Cao Cao's stronghold Xuchang. Hence, on hearing that Yuan Shu had surrendered to and was on his way, via Xiapi, to join Yuan Shao in the north, Liu Bei asked to lead a force to intercept. Before his advisers were able to change his mind, Cao Cao consented, commissioned Liu Bei and Zhu Ling an army to move south. Having his path blocked, Yuan Shu turned back to Shouchun and died there.

Zhu Ling returned to Xuchang, but Liu Bei stayed behind with the army. He took the opportunity to kill Che Zhou (??), Cao Cao's appointed Governor of Xu Province, and took over the region once again. He left Guan Yu to guard Xiapi while he himself garrisoned Xiaopei.

Yuan Shao, having defeated Gongsun Zan, started moving against Cao Cao, set up camps on the north bank of the Yellow River. Liu Bei sent Sun Qian to Yuan Shao to request an alliance.

In 200, Dong Cheng's plot was discovered. All conspirators and their families were summarily executed.

Having to confront Yuan Shao at Guandu, Cao Cao sent his subordinates Liu Dai and Wang Zhong against Liu Bei. Liu Bei defeated them. Predicting Yuan Shao would be hesitant to attack Xuchang, Cao Cao turned south, overran Liu Bei's position. Not knowing if Liu Bei was dead or alive, Guan Yu submitted to Cao Cao.

Liu Bei fled north to Yuan Shao. There Yuan Shao and Yuan Tan treated him with honor. Liu Bei participated in the battles of Boma, in which Yuan Shao successively lost two of his best generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou, the former slain by Guan Yu.

Liu Pi in Runan rebelled against Cao Cao. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei and some troops south to help them. Liu Bei and Liu Pi attacked Xuchang but were defeated by Cao Ren. Around this time, Guan Yu left Cao Cao and returned to Liu Bei. The defeated Liu Bei returned to the north and urged Yuan Shao to ally with Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province (??, present day Hubei and Hunan). Yuan Shao sent him south to Runan again to aid the bandit Gong Du. There Liu Bei defeated and killed Cao Cao's general Cai Yang.


<b>Taking refuge with Liu Biao</b>
After defeating Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, Cao Cao led his army to attack Runan in 201. Liu Bei fled to Jing Province to seek refuge from Liu Biao.

Liu Biao welcomed Liu Bei personally, treating him as an honored guest. He also gave Liu Bei some troops and asked him to station in Xinye.

Liu Bei stayed in Jing Province several years. One time he was in attendance upon Liu Biao and he got up to go to the lavatory. As he came back, he was weeping. Surprised, Liu Biao asked what was the matter. Liu Bei answered "In earlier times, I never left the saddle. My thighs were thin. Now I do not ride anymore, they are fat and flabby. The days and months pass like a stream, and old age will come, but I have achieved nothing. That's why I am sad."

In 202, Cao Cao sent Yu Jin and Xiahou Dun to attack Liu Bei. Liu Bei ambushed and defeated them at Bowang.

In 207, Cao Cao planned a campaign to conquer the Wuhuan in the north, but was apprehensive that Liu Biao might attack his base. Guo Jia assured him that Liu Biao wouldn't move, because "he knows his ability is no match for Liu Bei. If he gives Liu Bei an important post, he must be concerned that Liu Bei will become too powerful. But if he gives him a lesser position, Liu Bei would be reluctant to serve him." Cao Cao agreed. Indeed when Liu Bei advised Liu Biao to attack Xuchang while Cao Cao was away, Liu Biao would not agree—only to express regret when the opportunity was gone.

Away from the battlefields in the east and under the capable rule of Liu Biao, Jing Province was prosperous and a popular destination for literati fleeing the destruction of war. Liu Bei inquired Sima Hui, a revered recluse, about scholars. Sima Hui named Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong as exceptional men that comprehended the important affairs of the age. Xu Shu also urged Liu Bei to call on Zhuge Liang.

So Liu Bei went to see Zhuge Liang. He had to make three trips before he was able to see him. Zhuge Liang showed Liu Bei the Longzhong plan, a long-term strategy that outlined how Liu Bei could compete with Cao Cao.

In 208, Liu Biao died. His younger son Liu Cong succeeded him and instantly submitted to Cao Cao, without informing Liu Bei. By the time Liu Bei heard something, Cao Cao had reached Wancheng (modern Nanyang City). Abandoning his camp at Fancheng, Liu Bei led his troops away. Many of Liu Cong's attendants and the people of Jing Province turned to Liu Bei. By the time he reached Dangyang (??), his followers numbered more than one hundred thousands, moving only 10 li a day. He however sent Guan Yu ahead to wait for him in Jiangling, where the arsenal was, with Jing Province's fleet.

Afraid that Liu Bei might reach Jiangling before him, Cao Cao led his cavalry on a chase. In a day and a night, they caught up with Liu Bei and captured all his people, army, and baggage at the Battle of Changban. Leaving his family behind, Liu Bei fled with only scores of followers. With Guan Yu's fleet, they crossed the Mian River to Jiangxia (??) then the Yangzi to Xiakou (??) with Liu Qi, Liu Biao's eldest son, and his men.


<b>The battle of Red Cliffs</b>
When Liu Bei was still at Changban, Sun Quan's envoy Lu Su hinted to him that he should ally with Sun Quan against Cao Cao. Zhuge Liang, as Liu Bei's envoy, together with Lu Su went to meet Sun Quan at Chaisang (??) to seal the alliance.

Liu Bei and Sun Quan formed their first coalition against the southward expansion of Cao Cao. The two sides clashed at the Red Cliffs (northwest of present day Puqi County, Hubei). Cao Cao boasted 830,000 men (historians believe the realistic number was around 220,000), while the alliance at best had 50,000 troops.

However, Cao Cao's men, mostly from the north, were ill-suited to the southern climate and naval warfare, and thus entered the battle with a clear disadvantage. Furthermore, a plague that broke out undermined the strength of Cao Cao's army. The fire tactic used by Huang Gai and Zhou Yu also worked effectively against Cao Cao's vessels, which were chained together and thus allowed the fire to quickly spread. A majority of Cao Cao's troops were either burned to death or drowned in the river. Those who tried to retreat to the near bank were ambushed and annihilated by enemy skirmishers. Cao Cao himself barely escaped the encounter.

Cao Cao returned to the north, leaving Cao Ren and Xu Huang to hold Jiangling, Yue Jin to hold Xiangyang (modern day Xiangfan).


<b>Master of Jing Province</b>
While Zhou Yu, followed up his resounding victory, was fighting Cao Ren for Jiangling on the north bank, Liu Bei, after recommending Liu Qi to be the new Inspector of Jing Province (????, Jingzhou Shushi), mopped up the four commanderies south of the Yangzi—Changsha, Lingling (??, present day Yongzhou, Hunan), Guiyang (??), and Wuling (??). Liu Bei set his base at Gong'an (??) and began building up strength. When Liu Qi died, Liu Bei succeeded him as Governor of Jing Province. Sun Quan gave his younger sister as wife to Liu Bei to bolster the alliance.

Officials and men who previously served Liu Biao now turned to Liu Bei. Under the pressure of Liu Bei's growing influence on the south Jing Province, Sun Quan's position on the north Jing Province became untenable especially after the death of Zhou Yu in 210. Lu Su, successor to Zhou Yu's command post, moved his headquarter further east from Jiangling to Lukou (??), yielding western Jing province and access to northern Jing Province to Liu Bei. Diplomatically, they were "lending" Liu Bei Jing Province—a debt that Liu Bei however never recognized.

<b>Early life</b>
Guan Yu was born in the county of Xie (?, a subdistrict of present day Yuncheng, Shanxi). The year of his birth is not found in historical records.

Guan Yu fled his hometown at the age of twenty-three after slaying a local bully named Lü Xiong (??). Five years later, he arrived in Zhuo Commandery (??, present day Zhuozhou, Hebei), where Liu Bei was recruiting a force to heed the government's call to resist the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Together with Zhang Fei, Guan Yu joined Liu Bei and fought against the rebel forces in northern China. For his efforts Liu Bei was appointed governor of Pingyuan County (??). Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were also made commanders and given their own divisions of troops. According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, the three men slept on the same bed and treated one another like brothers. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei also followed Liu Bei wherever he went, and protected him from danger however perilous the situation.

In 199 Liu Bei attacked and killed Che Zhou (??), the governor of Xuzhou (??) who was appointed by the rising warlord Cao Cao, and placed Guan Yu in control of the regional capital Xiapi, while he returned to Xiaopei. Cao Cao soon retaliated, personally leading a campaign east to reclaim Xuzhou. Liu Bei fled to seek refuge under Yuan Shao, a powerful warlord further north, but Xiapi was captured and Guan Yu surrendered to Cao Cao. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu with respect and even made him a deputy general.


<b>Short service under Cao Cao</b>
In 200, Yuan Shao mustered an army boasting 100,000 in strength and marched on Xuchang, the new capital and base city of Cao Cao. To ensure a safe crossing of the Yellow River, Yuan Shao sent his trusted general Yan Liang to attack Baima (??, northeast of present day Huaxian, Henan) as a diversionary tactic. In a counter-tactic, Cao Cao moved his main force westwards along the Yellow River, diverting Yuan Shao's army in the same direction, but sent Guan Yu and Zhang Liao east to relieve the attack on Baima. Upon reaching Baima, Guan Yu speared Yan amid the enemy troops, and brought back his severed head. Thus Yuan Shao lost an important lieutenant and the siege of Baima was unraveled. Guan Yu was then enfeoffed as Marquis of Han Shou(????). After doing Cao Cao this favor, Guan Yu left for Liu Bei, his former lord who was still in the camp of Yuan Shao, leaving behind a farewell letter and all of Cao Cao's rewards. When some of his subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, Cao Cao stopped them, saying, "To each his own."


<b>Capture of Jingzhou</b>
After Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao at the decisive Battle of Guandu, Liu Bei went south to seek shelter under Jingzhou (??) governor Liu Biao, who soon died of sickness. Cao Cao took the opportunity to expand his control south and seized a great part of Jingzhou north of the Yangtze River, but Liu Bei escaped south and formed a coalition with Sun Quan, a powerful warlord controlling most of southeastern China. The coalition defeated Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs and Jingzhou was reclaimed. Guan Yu was promoted to General Who Purges Rebels (????) and made governor of Xiangyang (but he was stationed in Jiangling), in charge of the defense of northern Jingzhou.

In 213, Liu Bei left for Yizhou (present day Sichuan) and took over the region two years later, staying there ever since. In 219, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong (???) and promoted Guan Yu to General of the Front (???), The popular ranking of the Five Tiger Generals, was however a work of fiction.


<b>Downfall</b>
In the same year Guan Yu attacked Fancheng (??, present day Xiangfan, Hubei), a city near Xiangyang which was defended by Cao Ren, a trusted general and cousin of Cao Cao. A long spell of rainfall as autumn came around flooded the Han River next to the city, which greatly aided Guan Yu. The flood drowned the majority of the relief troops Cao Cao sent, while their commanders, Yu Jin and Pang De, were both captured by Guan Yu. However, a further relief force under Xu Huang successfully repelled the invaders.

Further, at this time, it became known that Sun Quan, whom Guan had previously repeatedly provoked -- including, for example, forcibly seizing Sun's troops' food supply for his own troops while marching north against Cao -- had attacked Guan's home base of Jiangling, and that the two commanders that Guan had left in charge of the home base -- Mi Fang and Fu Shiren, whom Guan Yu had repeatedly insulted and threatened to punish -- had surrendered to Sun Quan. Instead of immediately sealing off the report of this, Guan Yu allowed this news be known to his army. The Wu forces held the families of the soldiers accompanying General Guan as hostages, because of his mercy for the soldiers and their families, he allowed them to rejoin their families in the captured territory to give the Wu forces no reason to harm the city's people.

With many of his troops deserting, Guan Yu attempted to retreat west to reunite with Liu Bei. However, he was encircled by Sun Quan's forces west of Maicheng (??, southeast of present day Dangyang, Hubei). As Guan Yu attempt to escape, he and his surviving followers including his son Guan Ping, his Inspector General Zhao Lei were captured in Zhang (?) Township (east of modern day Anyuan ?? County, Hubei). All three were executed. Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao in an attempt to lay all the blame on Cao Cao, who buried the body with the honors befitting a marquis. Guan Yu was given the posthumous title of Marquis Zhuangmou (???).

In 223, Liu Bei attempted a campaign to recapture Jingzhou and avenge Guan Yu, which culminated in his decisive defeat at the Battle of Yiling. Guan Yu's son Guan Xing and grandson Guan Tong both served as military commanders for Shu Han. According to the Record of Shu (??) by Wang Yin (??), after Cao Wei conquered Shu in 263, many members of Guan Yu's household were massacred by Pang Hui, son of Pang De who was executed by Guan Yu at the Battle of Fancheng.

To the end of Eastern Han, Zhang Fei, alongside Guan Yu, joined Liu Bei's militia against the Yellow Turbans Rebellion. He then became Liu Bei's bodyguard and such a friend as close as brothers with Liu Bei and Guan Yu that they even often slept on the same bed.

When Liu Bei was chased by Cao Cao's army at the Battle of Changban, Zhang Fei, with twenty cavalries, demolished a bridge to slow Cao Cao's pursuit. Zhang Fei stood beside the broken bridge and taunted the Cao army as a challenge, but no one dared make a move against him. He earned time for Liu Bei to escape.

After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei took over the southern part of Jing province and made Zhang Fei the Administrator of Yidu (??). When Liu Bei attacked Yi province Zhang Fei was commanded to attack Jiangzhou, where he captured an enemy general, Yan Yan. Facing Zhang's insults, Yan Yan condemned him for invading Yi province. Yan Yan was originally ordered to be executed by the angry Zhang Fei, but Yan Yan's fearlessness of death impressed Zhang Fei and his life was pardoned. Yan Yan then surrendered to Liu Bei.

Zhang Fei's victory during the western expedition resulted in the capture of the whole Yizhou. After resisting the force led by Zhang He of Cao army, Zhang Fei led a force upon Hanzhong, which was under Cao's control then, but failed. After Liu Bei finally annexed the important Hanzhong, Zhang Fei was regarded by many as a proper choice for the Administrator, but Wei Yan was appointed instead, to Zhang Fei's disappointment.

After Liu Bei declared himself the Emperor of Shu-Han, he led an army to retake Jing province, which had been taken by Sun Quan. Zhang Fei was preparing to lead ten thousand men to join the campaign. However, two men in Zhang's camp, Fan Jiang and Zhang Da, assassinated him and carried his head to Eastern Wu. When Liu Bei saw Zhang Fei's assistant who was going to report Zhang's death, he sighed, "Oh! Zhang Fei is dead."

Zhang Fei had two sons, Zhang Bao (??) and Zhang Shao (??). Zhang Bao died young and Zhang Shao worked as an officer of Shu Han. Zhang Bao's son, Zhang Zun (??), died resisting the Wei army that eventually ended the southwestern reign of Shu Han.

<b>Early life</b>
Zhuge Liang was born in Yangdu County (??) in Langya Commandery (??), at present-day Yinan County (??), Shandong Province. He was the second of three brothers and was orphaned early on; his mother died when he was nine, and his father when he was twelve. His uncle raised him and his siblings.[3] When Cao Cao invaded Shandong in 195, his family was forced to flee south, and his uncle soon died of illness.

Although both his sisters married into important families with numerous connections in the area, for ten years he resided in Longzhong Commandery (??; in present-day Hubei province)[3] with his brothers Zhuge Jin and Zhuge Jun (???) in a simple peasant life – farming by day and studying by night. He developed friendships among the local intelligentsia. His reputation soon grew, and he was named the Crouching (or Sleeping) Dragon, an indication that he was viewed as wise among his peers in many areas. Meanwhile, he married the daughter of another renowned scholar Huang Chengyan, whose wife was the sister of Lady Cai, wife of the warlord Liu Biao, and Cai Mao, one of Liu Biao's most powerful generals. Zhuge Liang's wife's name is rumored to be Huang Yueying. The Huang family was also connected to several other well established clans in the region.


<b>Rise to prominence</b>
The warlord Liu Bei harbored in the neighboring city Xiangyang under his distant relative and the governor of the Jing Province (??), Liu Biao. Zhuge Liang joined Liu Bei in 207 only after Liu Bei visited him in person three times.[1] Zhuge Liang soon presented his famous Longzhong Plan before Liu Bei, travelled in person to Eastern Wu and formed an alliance with its ruler, Sun Quan.

In the Battle of Red Cliffs of 208, the allied armies of Liu Bei and Sun Quan defeated Cao Cao, thus enabling Liu Bei to establish his own territories. The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms described that Zhuge Liang called forth a southeastern wind to sweep Huang Gai's fire-attack throughout Cao Cao's ships. In reality, however, it was the Wu officer Zhou Yu who masterminded the fire attack. In folklore, the wind is attributed to either Zhuge Liang's magic or his ability to predict the weather.

The union with Sun Quan broke down when Wu general Lü Meng invaded the Jing Province in 219 when its defender Guan Yu was at the Battle of Fancheng. Guan Yu was eventually captured by the Wu forces and was decapitated. Liu Bei, infuriated with the execution of his longtime comrade, ignored all arguments of his well-meaning subjects and turned on Eastern Wu, leading a huge army to seek revenge. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Yiling by Lu Xun and died in the lone fortress of Baidicheng after a hasty and humiliating retreat to his own borders. After the death of Liu Bei, Zhuge Liang became the chancellor of Shu Han under Liu Shan, Liu Bei's son, and renewed the alliance with Sun Quan.[3] Despite Liu Bei's request that Zhuge Liang assume control of Shu Han should his son prove to be an incompetent leader, Zhuge did not, serving Liu Shan unwaveringly.


<b>The Southern Expedition</b>
During his reign as regent, Zhuge Liang pursued the goal of restoring the Han Dynasty, which, in Shu's point of view, was usurped by Cao Wei. Zhuge Liang felt that in order to attack Wei he would first have to unify Shu Han completely.[4] If he fought in the north while the Nanman people rebelled in the south, then the Nanman people would march further and perhaps even press into areas surrounding the capital. So rather than embarking on a northern invasion, Zhuge Liang led an army to pacify the south first.

Ma Su, brother of Ma Liang, proposed the plan that Zhuge Liang should work toward getting the tribes to join him rather than trying to subdue all of them and he took this plan. Zhuge Liang defeated the rebel leader, Meng Huo, seven different times, but released him each time in order to achieve his genuine surrender.[5]

Finally, Meng Huo agreed to join Zhuge Liang in a genuine acquiescence, and thus Zhuge Liang appointed Meng Huo governor of the region, so he could govern it as he already had, keeping the populace content, and keeping the southern Shu border secure to allow for the future Northern Expeditions.[4] Zhuge Liang also obtained resources from the south, and after this, Zhuge Liang made his moves north.


<b>The Northern Expeditions</b>
From 228 until his death in 234, Zhuge Liang launched five Northern Expeditions against Cao Wei, but all except one failed, usually because his food supplies ran out rather than failure on the battlefield. His only permanent gain was the addition of the Wudu (??) and Yinping (??) prefectures as well as relocating Wei citizens to Shu on occasion.[6]

During his first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang persuaded Jiang Wei, a general of Cao Wei, to defect to Shu Han.[6] Jiang Wei would become one of the prominent Shu generals, and inheritor of Zhuge Liang's ideals. On the fifth expedition, he died of overwork and illness in an army camp in the Battle of Wuzhang Plains at the age of 54. At Zhuge's recommendation, Liu Shan commissioned Jiang Wan to succeed him as Regent.[7]

In the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhuge Liang attempted to extend his lifespan by twelve years, but failed when the ceremony was disturbed when Wei Yan rushed in, announcing the arrival of the Wei army. The novel also related a story of Zhuge Liang passing the 24 Volumes on Military Strategy (??????) to Jiang Wei at the eve of his death.

<b>Early life</b>
Zhao Yun was born in the Zhending (??) county of Changshan (??) province (now Zhengding, Hebei) around the year 168 AD. He joined the warlord Gongsun Zan around the end of 191 or the beginning of 192 as commander of a small group of county volunteers. In 192 he was placed under the authority of Liu Bei, who at the time held only the rank of a major under Gongsun Zan, as a commander of Liu Bei’s cavalry forces. Liu Bei had a contingent of several thousand Wuhuan cavalry and Zhao Yun was put in charge of this force. Zhao Yun left Gongsun Zan and Liu Bei to attend his elder brother’s funeral soon after.

He rejoined Liu Bei in 200, when Liu Bei was defeated by Cao Cao and fled to Yuan Shao. Evidently Zhao Yun had an extremely close friendship with Liu Bei. Records of Three Kingdoms says that they slept in the same bed during the time the two were together in the city of Ye. Around the same time, Liu Bei sent Zhao Yun to secretly recruit more men to reinforce Liu Bei’s then small army under Yuan Shao. From then on, Zhao Yun followed Liu Bei in his sojourns throughout northern China.


<b>In Jing province</b>
In 202, Zhao Yun participated in the Battle of Bowang against Xiahou Dun, a general serving under Cao Cao. During the battle, Zhao captured Xiahou Lan (???). Zhao Yun and Xiahou Lan were from the same hometown, and they had known each other since childhood. Zhao Yun went to Liu Bei and pleaded for Xiahou Lan’s life. He suggested to Liu Bei since Xiahou Lan was an expert in law, he could be appointed as an army judge. Liu Bei gave him the consent. However, Zhao Yun never kept Xiahou Lan close to him, so as to separate personal relations from official matters.

In 208, Zhao Yun distinguished himself at the Battle of Changban. When Liu Bei was fleeing in the chaos, he left his family behind. Then Zhao Yun disappeared to the north, prompting suspicion that Zhao Yun had surrendered to Cao Cao. When someone reported that to Liu Bei, Liu Bei angrily threw a handaxe and said "Zilong would never desert me". Sure enough, Zhao Yun came back with Liu Bei's infant son Liu Shan in his arms, also bringing back his wife Lady Gan. With this, Zhao Yun was promoted to General of the Standard (????).

After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhao Yun played a major role in conquering territories of Jiangnan for Liu Bei. He was named a major-general (???) and was appointed the Grand Administrator of Guiyang (????), replacing Zhao Fan. Zhao Fan had a widowed sister in-law, Lady Fan (??), whose tremendous beauty supposedly could ruin countries and cities. He proposed her to Zhao Yun. However, Zhao Yun politely turned Zhao Fan down, “I share the same surname as you. Therefore I consider your brother my brother.” Many people thought it would be a great match and suggested to Zhao Yun that he should take Lady Fan as his wife. Zhao Yun explained to them, “Zhao Fan surrendered only recently. His intentions are not yet clear. Besides, there are plenty of women in this world.” In the end, he did not marry Lady Fan. His worries turned out to be true; Zhao Fan later fled from Guiyang.

When Liu Bei entered the Yi province (??), he appointed Zhao Yun as the main officer to oversee his base (Liuying Sima, ????) in Gong'an (??). Liu Bei’s wife then was Lady Sun, Sun Quan’s sister. Emboldened by her brother’s power and influence, she and her militia often ran wild, breaking many laws. Liu Bei considered since Zhao Yun was serious, firm and unwavering, he must be able to bring everything under control and maintain order. Therefore, Liu Bei gave Zhao Yun the special authority to oversee the internal affairs of Gongan (to keep an eye on Lady Sun and her followers at the same time). Soon after Liu Bei left the Jing province, Sun Quan secretly summoned his sister back. Lady Sun decided to bring Liu Shan along with her, but Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei managed to stop her in time on the Yangtze River and rescued the young lord.

Later in 214, Zhao Yun accompanied Zhang Fei and Zhuge Liang into Shu. He held separate command, marching from Jiangzhou (??; modern-day Chongqing) via Jiangyang (??; modern-day Luzhou) and Jianwei (??) to Chengdu. Zhao Yun was named General Yijun (????) after Liu Bei claimed Chengdu. Around that time some people made suggestions to Liu Bei that all the generals should be awarded estates/plantations around Chengdu so they could settle in. Zhao Yun argued that it was more suitable to return these properties to the local people. Liu Bei accepted his advice.


<b>Battle of Hanshui</b>
In 219, Liu Bei and Cao Cao were battling over the control of Hanzhong. Cao Cao had huge supplies of rice stocked up near the North Mountain. Zhao Yun sent his soldiers with Huang Zhong, one of Liu Bei’s great generals, to attack Cao Cao’s army and to take the supplies. Huang Zhong did not return on time. Zhao Yun along with a dozen men, went out of camp to look for Huang Zhong. Cao Cao’s main force was marching at that time; Zhao Yun ran into Cao’s vanguards. Not soon after the two sides commenced to engage in battle, Cao Cao’s main force arrived. The situation became very perilous for Zhao Yun, as he and his men were greatly outnumbered. He decided to attack the frontline of Cao Cao’s army. Cao Cao’s men were surprised by the attack and momentarily dispersed. However, they soon regrouped and surrounded Zhao Yun. Zhao Yun fought his way out toward his own camp. When he found out his lieutenant general Zhang Zhu (??) was wounded and fell behind, he went back to rescue him.

Cao Cao's army pursued Zhao Yun to his camp. At that time, the Administrator of Mianyang (??), Zhang Yi, was at Zhao Yun’s camp. Zhang Yi thought it best to have all the gates closed in order to defend the camp. However, upon entering the camp, Zhao Yun ordered all banners to be dropped and hidden, all drums to be silenced, and the gates to be left open completely. Suspicious of an ambush, Cao Cao and his army hastily retreated. Zhao Yun ordered his drummers to beat drums as loudly as they could, and his archers to rain down arrows on Cao’s men. The stunned Wei army was completely routed. Attempting to escape, Wei soldiers rushed toward the Han River, and in confusion and panic many were pushed into the river and drowned.

The day after the battle, Liu Bei arrived to inspect the battlefield. He exclaimed, “Zilong has valor through and through.” He ordered a celebration, complete with wines and music until late that night, in honor of Zhao Yun. From then on, Liu Bei’s army called Zhao Yun “The General with the Might of a Tiger” (????).


<b>Later life</b>
In 221 Liu Bei proclaimed to be the Emperor of Shu Han. At the same time he declared war on Sun Quan out of revenge for the death of Guan Yu and loss of Jing province. Zhao Yun made an attempt to dissuade Liu Bei from entering the war, and to attack Cao Wei first. Liu Bei refused to heed the advice and subsequently waged war against Eastern Wu. He left Zhao Yun behind to be in command of Jiangzhou. After Liu Bei was defeated in the Battle of Yiling, Zhao Yun’s troops advanced to Yong'an. At that time, the Wu army had already retreated.

Liu Bei died in 223, and his son Liu Shan succeeded the throne. That year, Zhao Yun was named General who Conquers the South (????), and Central Military Commander (???). He was also bestowed the title Marquis of Yongchang Ting (????). Soon after, he was promoted to General who Guards the East (????). In 227, Zhao Yun followed Zhuge Liang into Hanzhong to prepare for the first of the Northern Expeditions. The next year, Zhuge Liang sent Zhao Yun to Jigu (??) as a decoy against the main force of Wei led by Cao Zhen. Zhuge Liang’s main force suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Jieting. At the same time and against a far superior force, Zhao Yun was also unable to muster a victory. However, he was able to limit the loss to a minimum by gathering his men immediately and defending his positions steadfastly. He was demoted to the General Who Maintains Peace in the Army (????).

In 229 AD, Zhao Yun died at Hanzhong and this was much grieved in the Shu army. He received the posthumous appellation of Shunping Marquis (???) from Liu Shan in 261. Liu Shan’s order to have Zhao Yun honored said, “When Zhao Yun was serving the late Emperor Liu Bei, his contributions were already remarkable. When I was young, I relied on his loyalty to save me from great danger. That’s why I am bestowing him the honour.” Only twelve Shu officials were awarded noble titles posthumously. It was considered a great honour by Shu people at that time.

Zhao Yun had two sons, Zhao Tong and Zhao Guang (??). The younger son was a subordinate of Jiang Wei, and died in combat in Tazhong (??).

<b>Early life</b>
Ma Chao was from Fufeng Prefecture's Maoling County; he was born of mixed blood — half Han Chinese and half Qiang. In the latter years of Emperor Ling's reign, his father, Ma Teng together with Han Sui, Bian Zhang and others built an army in Liangzhou. Later on, Ma Teng and Han Sui led their troops to Chang'an. The Han imperial court gave a title of "General who Controls the West" (????) to Han Sui and ordered him to return to Jincheng while giving the title of "General who Conquers the West" (????) to Ma Teng and stationed him at Mei County (in the province of Shaanxi). Later, Ma Teng attacked Chang'an but was defeated and retreated to Liangzhou. Meanwhile, Zhong Yao, who protected the pass of Guanzhong, wrote a letter to Ma Teng and Han Sui informing them of an interest in forming an alliance. Subsequently, Ma Teng and Han Sui had some disagreements and Ma Teng asked to return to the vicinity of the capital. So the Han imperial court summoned Ma Teng back and made him a Commandant of the Palace Guards.[1]

Cao Cao recommended Ma Teng’s firstborn son, Ma Chao, to serve in office, but Ma Chao declined. Later on, however, Ma Chao became Sili Xiaowei Dujun Congshi (roughly meaning a subordinate military officer of Sili Xiaowei),[2] and accompanied Zhong Yao to Pingyang and suppress Guo Yuan and Gao Gan.[3] In the ensuing battle, Ma Chao was hit by an arrow on the foot, but he took a pouch, wrapped his foot in it, and continued fighting and beheaded Guo Yuan.[4] The court made him Inspector of the Xu province, and then transferred him to be an Imperial Consultant. When Ma Teng went into the Capital, Ma Chao was made Lieutenant-General, and ordered to take over Ma Teng’s command. He also received the title of Marquis of Duting. The court also made Ma Chao’s younger brother Ma Xiu Chief Commandant of the Charioteers, and Ma Xiu’s younger brother Ma Tie Colonel of the Cavalry. All their families were sent to Ye city, but Ma Chao stayed behind.[5]


<b>Uprising against Cao Cao</b>
After he took control of Ma Teng's forces, Ma Chao reconciled with Han Sui. He also contacted Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi and others, and started the Battle of Tong Pass. Cao Cao personally negotiated with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao thought highly about his own ability and had planned to capture Cao Cao alive. His charges were only held back by Cao Cao’s personal bodyguard, Xu Chu. After executing Ma Chao's family in Ye for his rebellion, Cao Cao used Jia Xu's ploy to drive Han Sui and Ma Chao apart and instigated them to be suspicious of each other. Thus, their forces were annihilated and Ma Chao escaped to the west and lived among the tribes. Cao Cao pursued him to Anding (??) when he heard about unrest in the north and ordered his troops to return. Yang Fu warned Cao Cao, "Ma Chao has the courage of Ying Bu and Han Xin, and he has the support of the Qiangs and the other tribes. If you order the army to retreat now and we don't have enough forces here, we forfeit the prefectures of Longxi."[6]

Sure enough, Ma Chao attacked the prefectures of Longxi with the forces of the western tribes and the prefectures took their lead from him, except for the city of Jicheng (??).[7] When he conquered Jicheng, Ma Chao killed the Inspector of Liangzhou, Wei Kang, occupied the city and controlled Wei Kang’s forces. He called himself the General Who Conquers the West and took over the governance of Bingzhou and the military matters of Liangzhou. The deputies who served under Wei Kang: Yang Fu, Jiang Xu, Liang Kuan, Zhao Qu and others plotted against Ma Chao. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu revolted in Licheng and Ma Chao left Jicheng to quell the uprising, but was not successful. Meanwhile, Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu closed the gates to Jicheng and Ma Chao could not return to the city. He had little choice but to seek refuge with Zhang Lu in Hanzhong.


<b>Service under Zhang Lu</b>
Ma Chao was unhappy with Zhang Lu because he felt Zhang Lu was not capable enough nor ambitious enough to accomplish great tasks.[8] He would ask Zhang Lu for troops to attack Liangzhou from time to time, but was never triumphant.

Zhang Lu once thought of marrying his daughter to Ma Chao, but Wang Shang, one of Zhang Lu's officers, dissuaded him, saying "Ma Chao is full of courage but not humanity; he knows no allegiance. He can not be trusted in a relationship that calls for an interdependency."[9] (referring to his uprising that doomed his clan). Ma Chao was deeply regretful for causing the death of his family, as on one New Year's Day, he laments with younger cousin Ma Dai: "A family of hundreds, sharing the same fate in one day. Now are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?"

Zhang Lu grew to distrust Ma Chao more and more, and sent Yang Bo to monitor him. Ma Chao then left Zhang Lu to live with the Di people.


<b>Service under Liu Bei</b>
Meanwhile, Liu Bei attacked Liu Zhang in Chengdu and sent Li Kui to convince Ma Chao to join him.[10] Ma Chao responded by killing Yang Bo and leading his men to defect to Liu Bei. When Liu Bei heard that Ma Chao was coming, he said delightedly, "I am going to get Yizhou!"[11] He sent an envoy to greet Ma Chao. Ma Chao led his men to the north side of Chengdu, capital city of Liu Zhang. There was great fear within the city. Within ten days, Liu Zhang surrendered.[12] Ma Chao was appointed as "General Who Pacifies the West" (????) and put in charge of the areas of Linju (??) as befitting a Marquis of Duting, which was the title awarded by the Han court to Ma Chao. When Liu Bei became Prince of Hanzhong, he gave Ma Chao the title of "General of the Left" (???). In 221, Ma Chao was appointed as "General of the Agile Cavalry" (????) and governor of the Province of Liang. He also received a noble title of Marquis of Lixiang.[13]

Liu Bei wrote to Ma Chao, "I am incapable but I needed to preserve the Han dynasty. Cao Cao and his son ruined the country would be remembered by all for their sins. I am disconsolate by their wrongdoings. Our people loathed them and hope to regain the Han realm such that the Di, Qiang and Xunyu and other tribes on all corners of China will be willing to join us. You are in good esteem of the northerners and your valor is well-known there. I have an important task for you: I hope you use your great influence to govern them and be concerned about the sufferings of the people. You must show the benefits of the Han government. Be fair in your task to reward the good and punish the wrongdoers. Add to the fortunes of the Han culture and not let our people down."[14]

Ma Chao passed away at the age of 47 in second year of Zhangwu as a result of illness. Before he died, he wrote to Liu Bei, "Most of my extended family of two hundred odd were killed by Cao Cao. Only my younger cousin Ma Dai is left. Let him continue what is left of our family. I entrust him to you. That is all I have to say."[15]

Liu Bei gave Ma Chao the posthumous title of Marquis of Wei and his son, Ma Cheng, inherited his nobility. Ma Chao's daughter married Prince of Anping, Liu Li.[16]

<b>Life</b>
Born in Nanyang Commandery (present day Nanyang, Henan), Huang Zhong initially served a military post under Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province (??). After Liu Biao's death in 208, the powerful warlord Cao Cao conquered Jing Province and Huang Zhong continued his service under this new lord of the land, specifically in Changsha under the Administrator, Han Xuan.

Following Cao Cao's defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs in the same year, Liu Bei was gradually taking over the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, including Changsha. Huang Zhong strongly recommended to his lord Han Xuan to surrender to Liu Bei, which they did, sparing many innocent civilian lives that would be lost if there were a battle. Huan Xuan and Huang Zhong then began their service under Liu Bei. He performed extremely well in Liu Bei's campaign to gain Yi Province (??) from 212 to 214, his bravery in battles unmatched by any. After Yi Province was taken, Huang Zhong was promoted to General who Campaigns against Rebels (????).

In 217, Liu Bei led a force upon Hanzhong, which was under the control of Cao Cao. His force met with resistance led by Xiahou Yuan at Yangping Pass (???). The confrontation dragged on for more than a year until one night, Liu Bei set fire to the barbed fence around Xiahou Yuan's camp at the foot of Mount Dingjun. Alarmed by the attack, Xiahou Yuan sent Zhang He to defend the eastern corner of the camp, while he guarded the south. Liu Bei's main force pressed against Zhang He, outmatching the latter. Xiahou Yuan had to dispatch a fraction of his own troops to Zhang He's rescue.

Accompanied by thundering drums, the division led by Huang Zhong then descended upon Xiahou Yuan's dwindling force. The battle became a rout and Xiahou Yuan himself was killed in battle. The victory at Mount Dingjun was a major stepping stone to the later conquest of Hanzhong.

In 219, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong, a symbolic measure comparing himself to the Emperor Gaozu of Han. He then promoted Huang Zhong to General of the Rear (???), placing the latter on the same level as four other major generals: Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun and Ma Chao. However, Huang Zhong died in the next year, to an unspecified cause. He was given the posthumous title of Marquis Gang, literally meaning the unyielding marquis.

Guan Ping (??, ? – 219) was the first son of the famed 3rd century military general Guan Yu and elder brother of Guan Xing. He had served a military post under Liu Bei during the Three Kingdoms era of China. Little about him could be found in historical records (not even his style name was documented) except that he was captured along with his father west of Maicheng (??, southeast of present day Dangyang, Hubei) by the forces of Sun Quan in 219. Both were promptly executed. In the 14th century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, Guan Ping was said to have been adopted by Guan Yu when he was seventeen (Chapter 28), as his true father requested to have him follow and assist the renowned general. Without a son then, Guan Yu took Guan Ping as his own.

Since the deification of Guan Yu in Sui Dynasty, Guan Ping along with Zhou Cang (sometimes with Liao Hua as well) would often appear at the sides of this revered Chinese deity in statues placed in temples and shrines. In portraits, the trio would often appear together as well. Guan Ping's face is traditionally painted white, is a stark contrast to Zhou Cang's coal black complexion, while Guan Yu's tends to be shades of red.

Wei Yan (175–234) was a military general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of China.

The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms suggested that Wei Yan originally served as a mid-ranked military officer under the warlord Liu Biao, but the history books did not officially recognize that.

Wei Yan joined Liu Bei's army after Liu Bei captured Changsha in 209. In 211 Wei Yan was a soldier in Liu Bei's campaign to Yi Province (??, modern Sichuan and Chongqing) (de Crespigny 2007:857). His talent helped him to become a major general of Liu Bei's army in very few years. Liu Bei named him as Administrator of Hanzhong (??)[1] and regional Area Commander in the year 219 (de Crespigny 2007:857).

After Liu Bei's death in 223, Zhuge Liang employed him for the war with Cao Wei. He had suggested some radical plans in order to win the war but Zhuge Liang rejected them.

When Zhuge Liang died in 234, some officers under him (including Jiang Wei and Ma Dai) killed Wei Yan, in the title of "rebellion".

Both the history books and the semi-fictional novel suggested that Wei Yan intended to attack Sima Yi, a prominent officer and strategist of Cao Wei, but officers such as Jiang Wei objected to the plan and ordered Wei Yan to retreat. Wei Yan refused and thus attempted to kill those officers by burning down the wooden walkway and preventing them from returning to Shu Han. Those officers then labeled Wei Yan a rebel and killed him through the use of a sagacious strategy.

According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, Wei Yan was a very arrogant man and others tended to avoid him. Some believed that Wei Yan was an aggressive person, which was incompatible with Zhuge Liang's strategies and methods. Moreover, Wei Yan's personality caused Yang Yi, his subordinate officer, to fear and despise him, with the two barely capable of avoiding fighting one another. Eventually Ma Dai and Yang Yi murdered Wei Yan. Yang Yi later slew Wei Yan's entire family as well.

Others believe[citation needed] that Zhuge Liang was unfairly biased against Wei Yan, beginning when Wei Yan rescued Huang Zhong from execution and surrendered a city to Liu Bei, slaying the prefect in the process. While Zhuge Liang welcomed Huang Zhong, he ordered Wei Yan executed, saying that anyone who would betray their lord so easily was untrustworthy. Liu Bei ordered Wei Yan's life spared and welcomed him into his forces. Wei Yan, however, never actually slew Han Xuan who, in fact, surrendered to Liu Bei.

Based on the one example of Zhuge Liang's entrusting his student Ma Su to an important task despite Liu Bei's warning that he was unsuited for anything important, Wei Yan's supporters believe[citation needed] that this was simply another example of Zhuge Liang's poor judgment of character as opposed to his supreme judgement of warfare. It was said that even the great general Zhang He respected and feared Wei Yan's abilities.

<b>Life</b>
Wei Yan, stylename Wenchang, was a native of Yiyang. As the Company of the Division (Bu Qu), he followed Liu Bei into Shu. He had many military accomplishments and was assigned as General of the Standard (Ya Men Jiang Jun).

Liu Bei became King of Hanzhong and was about to leave for Chengdu. As for selecting the general who would guard Han Chuan (Hanzhong), many considered Zhang Fei to be the likely candidate and Zhang Fei himself thought he was likely to be chosen. However, Liu Bei named Wei Yan as the "General Who Maintains Distant Lands in Peace," as well as the Governor of Hanzhong, to the astonishment of many in the army. Liu Bei said in front of the various ministers, "Now I am entrusting a great responsibility on you, Sir, do you have anything that you want to say?". Wei Yan replied, "If Cao Cao with the entire world was coming here, I request that I smite him on behalf of Your Highness. If it is an auxiliary force of a hundred thousand, I request that I swallow them on behalf of Your Highness." Liu Bei was very pleased and everyone else cried out boldly in agreement. Liu Bei honored Wei Yan with the title, General Who Suppresses the North.

In the first year of Jian Xing [CE 223], he was enfeoffed as Marquis of a Chief Village (Dou Ting Hou).

In the fifth year [CE 227], Zhuge Liang stationed in Hanzhong and Wei Yan was to supervise the front division with the rank of Major of the Prime Minister (Cheng Xiang Sima) and Inspector (Ci Shi) of Liangzhou.

In the eighth year [CE 230], he was sent as ambassador into the Qiang tribes, where the Wei General of the Rear Army, Fei Yao, and the Inspector of Yongzhou, Guo Huai, battled with him at Yang Qi. Wei Yan heavily defeated them and was promoted as Advisor of the Front Army (Qian Jun Shi), General Who Conquers the West, and Marquis of Nanzheng.

Each time he accompanied Zhuge Liang on expedition, he always wanted to lead ten thousand and go along different paths to meet up with Zhuge Liang at the Tong Pass, based on the previous strategy of Han Xin. But Zhuge Liang never allowed this plan and Wei Yan often said Zhuge Liang was faint-hearted. He sighed that his talents were not used to their full potential. Wei Lue says: Xiahou Mao was the General Who Pacifies the West stationed in Chang'an. When Zhuge Liang was in Nanzheng discussing strategy with his generals, Wei Yan said, "I have heard this Xiahou Mao is the son-in-law of their emperor; he is faint-hearted and without counsel. I wish to take five thousand troops, another five thousand to carry supplies, to march out of Baozhong eastward along the Qin Ling mountains, and then turn north up Ziwu. I will reach Chang'an within ten days. When Mao hears of my sudden arrival, he is certain to take a boat and flee. In Chang'an, there is only Counselor (Yu Shi) and the Governor (Taishou) of Jingshao left to defend. The grain in the storehouses of Heng Men and those left behind by the people who scatter will be enough for us. It will take about twenty days for our main force to meet up with the force in the East, to which Your Excellency, taking the road out of Xie valley will reach the place. This way, the region west of Xianyang will be settled in one stroke." However Zhuge Liang considered this county to be dangerous and preferred to travel along the flat roads and so that Longyou could be taken easily. He was certain that ten times out of ten, this plan was certain to work without any worry, and so he did not accept Wei Yan's plan. Wei Yan was very good to his soldiers and was braver than others. He was boastful of his talents and many tended to avoid him. However, Yang Yi alone made no concession to him and Yan was extremely resentful of him. They were like fire and water.

In the twelfth year [CE 234], Zhuge Liang marched out of the mouth of the North valley, with Wei Yan leading the Van. At ten miles away from Zhuge Liang's tent, Wei Yan dreamed that horns grew out of his head. So he asked Zhao Zhi for the meaning of this dream and Zhi gave him a false reply, "Every Qilin (Chinese unicorn) has horns but has no need for them. This means that without need for battle, the rebels will become defeated themselves." However, others interpret the dream as, "The character 'jiao' (horn), is shaped like a downward knife. To have a knife above one's head is a very ominous sign for him."

In the autumn, Zhuge Liang fell sick and sent secret orders to the Chief Clerk (Chang Shi), Yang Yi, the Major, Fei Yi, and the Protector of the Army, Jiang Wei for the army's retreat after his death. Wei Yan was to guard the rear with Jiang Wei after him. If Wei Yan refused to accept the order, they were to retreat without him.

Zhuge Liang died but his death was kept secret. Yang Yi ordered Fei Yi to go to Wei Yan and to discover his intentions. Wei Yan said, "Although the Prime Minister had died, I am still here. The officials belonging to the Office of Prime Minister may carry his mortal remains to be buried. I, on the other hand, should command the various troops and strike at the rebels. Because of the death of one man, must we neglect the affairs of the State? Besides, who am I, Wei Yan, that I should be commanded by Yang Yi to serve as general of the rearguard?" So he and Fei Yi took charge of the troops left behind and had Yi write a letter to be signed by both of them which was to be announced to the various generals. Fei Yi said to Wei Yan, "I should go on your behalf and explain this to the Chief Clerk, Yang Yi. The Chief Clerk is a civil official and is not experienced in military affairs, so it is certain to not disobey you." Fei Yi galloped quickly out the gate and Wei Yan regretted letting him go, so he went after him but could not catch up. He then sent someone to Yang Yi and the others, who were following Zhuge Liang's plan, so the various encampments were returning. Wei Yan was very angry and before Yang Yi had started, he led his troops back to the South before them, and burnt the plank roads.

Both Wei Yan and Yang Yi sent memorials, each accusing each other of rebelling. Within the same day, their memorials arrived and Shu Emperor Liu Shan asked the Clerk (Shi Zhong), Dong Yun and the left behind Chief Clerk of the Office of Prime Minister, Jiang Wan. Both of them supported Yang Yi while were suspicious of Wei Yan. Yang Yi had trees hewn to make roads and marched day and night to get close behind Wei Yan. Wei Yan arrived first at the Southern Valley and ordered his troops to attack Yang Yi and the others. Yang Yi ordered Wang Ping forward to resist Wei Yan. Wang Ping scolded at Wei Yan, "His Excellency so lately died that his body is not yet cold; how dare you act this way!" Wei Yan's soldiers knew their leader was in the wrong and no-one dared to act and so they scattered. Wei Yan, along with his sons and a few followers, fled to Hanzhong. Yang Yi sent Ma Dai to give chase. Ma Dai chopped Wei Yan's head off and sent it to Yang Yi. Yang Yi stepped on it and said, "You slave! Can you do your wicked deeds anymore?" He ordered the execution of Wei Yan's family to the third degree. Before, Jiang Wan had led the various camps of the imperial bodyguards north to cope with the disorders. He traveled about ten li (miles) when he heard news of Wei Yan's death, and so he returned.

In the beginning, Wei Yan did not go north to Wei but instead returned to the South. But his only desire was to kill Yang Yi and the others in disagreement with him, with the hope that opinion of the time would make him Zhuge Liang's successor. This was his actual aim and he did not think of rebelling. Wei Lue says: When Zhuge Liang died, he said to Wei Yan and the others, "After I am dead, be cautious in guarding but do no return here". Wei Yan was ordered to be assist in the operations and keep his death a secret and so he did as told. When they reached the entrance of Bao, the death was announced and a funeral held. Zhuge Liang's Chief Clerk, Yang Yi, was never in agreement with Wei Yan, and after noticing that Yan was in charge of military affairs, feared that he would be harmed. So he made rumours that Wei Yan was going to submit to the North and led his troops to attack him. In reality, Wei Yan had no intention to do such a thing, and so offered no resistance. He was later caught and killed.

Jiang Wei (202 - 264) was a military general and later regent of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of China. He was originally a Cao Wei middle-level military officer, but joined Shu Han strategist Zhuge Liang on Zhuge's first Northern Expedition against Cao Wei in 228. Zhuge Liang became impressed with Jiang Wei and immediately made him an army commander. He eventually rose through the ranks during the regencies of Zhuge Liang and of Zhuge Liang's successors Jiang Wan and Fei Yi to eventually become Fei Yi's chief assistant. After Fei Yi's death in 253, he succeeded to Fei Yi's position, but did not have the power that Fei Yi had, as he apparently became in charge largely only of military matters -- and therefore was only arguably a regent.

Reviving Zhuge Liang's campaigns against Cao Wei (which Jiang Wan and Fei Yi had largely abandoned), Jiang Wei made a number of incursions against Wei -- one in coordination with Eastern Wu's regent Zhuge Ke (Zhuge Liang's nephew) -- but each had to be abandoned due to the inadequate food supplies or due to battlefield losses, and these campaigns greatly drained Shu Han's resources. In 263, Wei, led by Deng Ai and Zhong Hui, conquered Shu Han. Jiang Wei tried to restore the kingdom by persuading Zhong Hui to declare a rebellion against the de facto Cao Wei ruler Sima Zhao, Zhong Hui agreed but after he did so, Zhong's own soldiers rebelled against him and Jiang Wei and Zhong Hui were killed in battle.

<b>Early life and career under Zhuge Liang's regency</b>
Jiang Wei was born during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and was from Tianshui Commandery . His father Jiang Jiong (??) was a military officer who was killed in battle during a Qiang rebellion, early in Jiang Wei's life. Because of what happened to his father, Jiang Wei became a military general himself for Cao Wei, Han's successor state.

For reasons unknown, when Liu Shan's regent Zhuge Liang had his first northern expedition in 228, Jiang Wei's commanding officer suspected him of secretly wishing to join Zhuge Liang, and once, when Jiang Wei was outside the city walls with his troops, they closed the city gates and would not allow Jiang Wei to re-enter. Jiang Wei was forced to indeed defect to Zhuge's army, leaving his mother in Cao Wei. Zhuge was impressed by Jiang Wei's military capabilities and quickly made him one of his leading officers, at the age of 27.

<b>Under Jiang Wan and Fei Yi's regencies</b>
After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Jiang Wan succeeded him as regent. He continued to value Jiang Wei's capabilities greatly, and he commissioned Jiang Wei with the title of the governor of Liang Province (??, modern Gansu), which Shu Han did not control, but effectively giving Jiang Wei the authority over the northwestern border. After Jiang Wan's death in 245, Fei Yi succeeded him and made Jiang Wei his chief assistant.

Jiang Wei had constantly wanted to revive Zhuge Liang's strategy of actively waging war against Cao Wei, and Fei Yi agreed -- but only partly. He gave Jiang Wei a small detachment of troops to allow Jiang to harass Cao Wei's border defense forces, and Jiang Wei appeared to be fairly effective at this task. He also was successful in persuading a number of non-Han tribes into joining Shu.


<b>As regent</b>
After Fei Yi's assassination in 253, Jiang Wei took over Fei's position, making him regent -- but his influence on domestic matters appeared to be limited, as those matters appeared to be dominated by Liu Shan's trusted eunuch Huang Hao. Jiang Wei, however, was the supreme authority in military matters. Jiang Wei attempted to strengthen Shu, however, its government's efficiency and cleanliness were deteriorating from within, greatly hindering Jiang's efforts and magnifying the effect of Jiang's losses on the battlefield.


[<b>Campaigns against Cao Wei</b>
Main article: Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions
Jiang Wei immediately revived Zhuge Liang's northern strategy, and later in 253 he set up a coordinated effort with Eastern Wu's regent Zhuge Ke to attack Cao Wei on two fronts -- Shu Han on the west and Eastern Wu on the east. Jiang Wei attacked the key border city of Didao (??, in modern Dingxi, Gansu) as Zhuge Ke launched a massive attack on Hefei. Cao Wei's regent Sima Shi correctly judged the Wu force to be the more serious threat and personally led the main Cao Wei force to the eastern front while sending a smaller detachment to relieve Didao. As the first sign of what would eventually recur, Jiang, while sieging Didao, ran out of food supplies and had to withdraw. Eventually, Sima's forces dealt a crippling defeat to Zhuge Ke, leading to Zhuge Ke's downfall later that year.

In 254, Jiang, after Li Jian (??), the county magistrate of Didao secretly declared that he would defect, again advanced on Didao and took the city, but after suffering a loss at the hands of Xu Zhi (??), Jiang Wei was forced to withdraw.

In the summer of 255, despite the opposition from Zhang Yi (under the rationale that Shu Han could not sustain continuous campaigns against Cao Wei), Jiang again attacked Didao, and was highly successful in his initial battles against the Cao Wei Yong Province (??, modern Shaanxi) governor Wang Jing (??), nearly annihilating Wang's troops. Zhang Yi again tried to persuade Jiang Wei to stop his campaign at this point, but Jiang refused. Instead, he sieged Didao again and eventually was forced to lift the siege when additional Cao Wei forces arrived under the command of Chen Tai. Jiang Wei and Chen Tai's forces remained in a stalemate throughout the entire winter. In the summer of 256, as Jiang Wei shifted his strategy to advance instead on Shanggui (??, in modern Tianshui, Gansu), his move was anticipated by the Wei general Deng Ai, who intercepted him and dealt him a major loss -- a loss that would cause the people of Shu to begin to resent Jiang.

In 257, when the Cao Wei was dealing with the rebellion of Zhuge Dan (who had anticipated an usurpation by Sima Shi's brother and successor Sima Zhao and wanted to resist it), Jiang Wei again attacked, this time advancing all the way to Mangshui (??, in modern Xi'an, Shaanxi), but could not induce Cao Wei's forces, commanded by Deng Ai and Sima Wang, to engage him in battle. After Zhuge was defeated in 258, Jiang withdrew.

In 262, Jiang Wei, despite Liao Hua's opposition, again attacked Wei, targeting Taoyang (??, in modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Hezuo), Gansu), but was defeated by Deng Ai. He withdrew to Tazhong (??, also in modern Gannan), and, apprehensive that Huang Hao might take this opportunity to damage him politically, did not dare to return to the Shu Han capital Chengdu, but remained at Tazhong, perhaps to carry out one strategy that Zhuge considered late in his campaigns -- have soldiers grow wheat to use as next year's food supply. Why Jiang was particularly apprehensive of Huang at this point was that he had unsuccessfully tried to persuade Liu Shan to execute Huang Hao earlier that year, and Huang was trying to find an opportunity to replace Jiang Wei with his friend Yan Yu (??).


<b>Fall of Shu Han</b>
Main article: Conquest of Shu by Wei
In 258, Jiang Wei had suggested the following strategic plan be drawn up in case of a major Wei attack -- that the border cities do not try to resist, but instead have the main forces to withdraw to the mountain passes to wait for Wei forces to be worn out, and then close up their path of withdrawal. Liu Shan approved the strategy and made it the official plan to follow in case Cao Wei attacked.

Late in 262, aggravated by Jiang's constant attacks, Sima Zhao considered hiring assassins to kill Jiang Wei. At his strategists' suggestion, he decided instead to try to wipe out Shu Han once and for all, and commissioned Deng Ai and Zhong Hui to lead the Cao Wei forces against Shu Han. Jiang Wei quickly realized that Wei was about to attack and petitioned Liu Shan to send forces to block off the key passes, but Huang Hao, believing in fortunetellers, disagreed and persuaded Liu Shan to take no actions on Jiang Wei's petition.

In 263, while Jiang was still at Tazhong, the Cao Wei attack was launched. Liu Shan ordered that Jiang Wei's plan from 258 be carried out -- but much to Liu Shan's surprise, the Wei forces took no heed of Shu Han border cities at all and headed directly for the key passes. Jiang Wei quickly withdrew his forces to try to defend against the attack, and after some initial failures, was finally able to block off Zhong Hui's forces at Jiange (??, in modern Guangyuan, Sichuan). Zhong Hui considered retreating, but Deng Ai led a smaller detachment through a treacherous mountain pass descending on Jiangyou (??, in modern Mianyang, Sichuan), defeating Zhuge Liang's son Zhuge Zhan and heading directly for the Shu Han capital Chengdu. Surprised and believing that Chengdu was defenseless, Liu Shan surrendered and ordered Jiang Wei to surrender to Zhong Hui, even though Chengdu was still manned by hundreds of thousands of soldiers. Zhong Hui treated Jiang Wei with respect and quickly made him a key advisor.


<b>Efforts to reestablish Shu Han and death</b>
Jiang Wei quickly saw that Zhong Hui had other ideas -- Zhong considered his abilities superior to all Cao Wei generals, even Sima Zhao, and wanted to overthrow Sima. Jiang Wei encouraged Zhong to rebel against Sima Zhao, and Zhong agreed. Zhong Hui first falsely reported to Sima Zhao that Deng Ai was planning a rebellion, and forged letters to and from Deng to increase the tension between Sima Zhao and Deng Ai. In early 264, Sima ordered that Zhong arrest Deng and seize his troops -- but at the same time led a force personally, heading toward Chengdu from the Cao Wei capital Luoyang. Zhong Hui, after seizing Deng Ai's troops, realized that Sima Zhao had seen through his intentions, and declared a rebellion.

Jiang Wei had other plans, however. He tried to persuade Zhong Hui to kill all of the high level Cao Wei officers, with his own plan that after Zhong did so, he would kill Zhong Hui and then all of the Wei soldiers and redeclare Shu Han's independence. He wrote letters to Liu Shan explaining his actions. Zhong Hui tentatively agreed with Jiang Wei's suggestion to kill all of the key officers, but hesitated in carrying the plan out. The plan leaked, however, and Zhong's soldiers turned against him. Jiang Wei led Zhong's personal guards against the rebelling soldiers, but could not withstand the attack and was killed in battle, along with Zhong Hui. Jiang Wei's wife and children were also killed in the confusion.

<b>Life</b>
Pang Tong started as a secretary in Nan Commandery (??), and was promoted to the administrator of Nan Commandery after Zhou Yu annexed Jing Province. Following the death of Zhou Yu, Pang Tong went to the Sun court to offer condolences, where he met and made friends with famous Jiangdong scholars such as Lu Ji, Gu Shao and Quan Cong.

After Jing Province was leased to Liu Bei, Pang Tong was appointed the magistrate of Laiyang (??), but was displaced for dereliction of duty. Knowing Pang Tong's talent well, Lu Su, the new Wu commander-in-chief, sent Liu Bei a letter, saying Pang Tong was no genius for ruling a county of hundred li and only by appointing him as Liu Bei's personal assistance and advisor can his talent be shown. Zhuge Liang also recommended Pang Tong. Liu Bei summoned Pang Tong and found him a real military genius, then appointed him as Headquarters Assistant Officer (????) and Military Advisor to the Household (?????), in the same rank as Zhuge Liang.

When Liu Bei led an army to Yi Province to help Liu Zhang defend from Zhang Lu, Pang Tong suggested that Liu Bei take Liu Zhang captive when they meet in order to gain control of the province without bloodshed. Liu Bei, reasoning that it was too big of a risk to take at that stage, given his own unfamiliarity with the province, declined and let Liu Zhang return to Chengdu, the capital of Yi Province. Later, when relations soured between Liu Bei and Liu Zhang, Pang Tong offered him three strategies, the upper plan, the middle plan, and the lower plan:

Upper: choose a few elites from the camp and hurry to Chengdu by night, this can force the unprepared Liu Zhang to surrender immediately;
Middle: fake the news that Liu Bei was retreating to Jing Province, hence lure Liu Zhang's two generals, Yang Huai and Gao Pei, away from their posts when they come to say farewell, then Liu Bei can kill them, take over their castles and armies, and advance to Chengdu;
Lower: retreat to Jing Province and wait for assistance for a fighting return to Yi Province.
Liu Bei took the middle one, which proved successful.

At a party in Fucheng (??), celebrating his victory over Liu Zhang so far, Liu Bei expressed joy at the banquet. Pang Tong, however, replied, "celebrating the invasion of other's territory is not what a person of ren (?, see Confucianism) would do." The drunken Liu Bei retorted angrily, "King Wu of Zhou also danced and sang after he defeated King Zhou of Shang, is he not he a model of ren then? You are wrong, so get out now!" After Pang Tong left his seat, Liu Bei felt regretful and invited him back. Pang Tong returned to his seat and started eating, without any apology to Liu Bei. Liu Bei asked, "When that happened, whose fault did you think it was?" Pang Tong replied, "It's both yours and mine." Liu Bei then laughed and continued with the party.

When leading the siege of Luocheng (??), Pang Tong was shot by arrows and died at the age of 36. Liu Bei wept whenever the grief was mentioned and Zhuge Liang came personally to his funeral. Pang Tong was conferred a posthumous title of Marquis of Guannei (???) and the posthumous name Marquis Jing (??).